Could Early Music Training Help Babies Learn Languages?

By Christina Zhao

http://scitechconnect.elsevier.com/early-music-training-babies-learn-languages/?utm_source=socialmedia&utm_medium=neuro&utm_campaign=Could%20Early%20Music%20Training%20Help%20Babies%20Learn%20Languages%3F&sf26540047=1

The Attention Deficit - Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) and the therapeutic effect of the music.

Kostas Mantzikos

Special Educator-Author

ABSTRACT

Many ancient Greek scholars such as Terpander, Arion, Isomenios, Empedocles, Pythagoras, Aristoxenus, Democritus, Damon, Celsus, Galen, and Theophrastus had applied music as a therapeutic agent in people with various body and mental illnesses. Recent investigations demonstrated the important role of music in persons with various developmental disorders (ADHD, autism, and Down Syndrome) which present deficits in various sectors such as language, communication, disposition, memory, and attention. The effect of music, in children with ADHD, has positive results in improvement in many fields in which they present such shortfalls. In this article through the bibliography we report the definitions of ADHD and music therapy, cognitive and psychological profile of these children as well as the effectiveness of music, in various sectors in which they exhibit deficits.

KEYWORDS: Children, ADHD, music, cognitive, psychological, profile.

INTRODUCTION

Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD), is a syndrome exhibited by a number of children who have excessive energy and kinetic activity compared to their peers. It mainly affects their ability to maintain their attention span as well as their interest in a given activity they are engaged in or their capacity to carry out the tasks assigned to them which are extremely reduced. Furthermore, their impulsive behavior deviates considerably in intensity and frequency from the same behaviour of their peers. Many times they also exhibit oppositional behavior and lack of collaborative disposal. In general, we could say that these children, although they have normal intelligence, often find it very difficult to meet the requirements of their environment and do not behave according to their developmental level (Kakouros, 2001).

Music therapy is the rehabilitation process in treating these patients, achieved basically through the impact of sounds. This therapeutic method is the production of musical sound and hearing. Music therapy is a certain method of psychotherapy that uses music as a communication medium. The produced and audible music emotionally charge the persons related to the psychotherapeutic effort (Antoniadou, 2011).

 COGNITIVE AND PSYCHOLOGICAL PROFILE OF INDIVIDUALS WITH ADHD

In ADHD there are several problems with speech as in pragmatics and prosody (Bloch, Aviram, Neeman, Braw , Nitzan, Maoz, & Mimouni - Bloch, 2015; Green, Johnson, & Bretherton, 2014). Additionally people with ADHD have largely locomotor hyperactivity and less sensory problems (Hartley & Sikora, 2009). Several studies (Brossard - Racine, Shevell, Snider , Belanger, & Majnemer, 2012; Fliers, Franke, Lambregts - Rommelse, Altink, Buschgens, 2010; Lavasani & Stagnitti, 2011; Pasini, & D 'Agati, 2009 a; Pasini, & D 'Agati, 2012 b) have shown that people with ADHD have poor performance in motor skills tests. Several surveys have shown that the ADHD incorporates deficits in executive functions, namely working memory, selective attention in behavioral inhibition, and action planning (Barkley, 1998; Kofler, Rapport , Bolden, Sarver, Raiker, & Alderson, 2011; lawrence, Houghton, Douglas, Durkin, Whiting, & Tannock, 2004; Nigg, 2009; Semrud - Clickerman, Walkowiak, Wilkinson, & Christopher, 2010).

On the other hand, children with ADHD show deficits in motivation and decision-making (Agapitou-Chalmpe, 2010; Castellanos, Sonuga - Barke , Milham, & Tannock, 2006; Toplak, Jain, & Tannock, 2005 a),and invariably exhibit deficits in mood regulation, at low agitation, and have a slow speed in the handling of information and reaction time to the stumuli (Nigg, 2009; Wu, Xiao , Sun, Zou, & Zhu, 2012). In this piece there is enough correlation of ADHD to autism (Asperger) (Miodovnik, Harstad, Sideridis, & Huntington, 2015; Nigg, 2009). Initially, the slow manner of information processing is because children displaying these two diversities find it difficult to immediately process a lot of information and require time to the process it all and instead do it piecemeal in order of input. Furthermore, the reason they are slow to react for example to a question is because children with ADHD, like autistic children deal with the question along with the answer and in doing so think of it as a reasonable picture in its totality prior to answering. Moreover the process is also exacerbated since children with ADHD have learning disabilities such as difficulties in mathematics and dyslexia (Agapitou-Chalmpe, 2010; Mahan, 2013; Nigg , 2009).

Surveys by (Arnold, Demeter, Mount, Frazier , Youngstrom, Fristad, Birmaher, Findling, Horwitz, & Kowatch, 2011; Biederman, Newcorn, & Sprich, 1991; Leirbakk, Clench - Aas, & Raanaas, 2015; Miller, Chang, & Ketter, 2013; Perrin, & Last , 1996; Plizka, 1989; Reeves, Werry, Elkind, & Zametkin, 1987; Werry, Reeves, & Elkind, 1987) have shown that children with ADHD can display Bipolar Disorder, and Anxiety Disorder. It is in fact reported that children with ADHD have difficulty socializing in various environments, such as for example in the schoolyard and neighborhood playground (Kofler et al, 2011; Myers , 2008; Rich, Loo, Yang, Dang, & Smalley, 2009).

Toplak and Tannock (2005b) support that children with ADHD have problems in their perception of time. Surveys have shown how children with ADHD may present with oppositional defiant disorder and Conduct Disorder (Bendiksen, Aase, Svensson, Friis , Myhre, Reichborn - Kjennerud, & Zeiner, 2014; Frick, Lahey, Christ, Loeber, & Green, 1991 · Ghanizadeh, 2011; Matthys, Vanderschuren , Schutter, & Lochman, 2012; Mordre, Groholt, Kjelsberg, Sandstad, & Myhre, 2011; Satterfield, Faller, Crinella, Schell, Swanson, & Homer, 2007;Werry et al, 1987) .

THE EFFECT OF MUSIC IN ADHD

As aforementioned children with ADHD show deficits in mood and stimulation. Surveys have shown that when children with ADHD hear certain music it has a positive effect on their mood and stimulation (Husain, Thompson, & Schellenberg, 2002; Nantanis & Schellenberg, 1999; Panksepp & Bernatzky, 2002; Thompson, Schellenberg, & Husain, 2001).

Music therapy has had a positive effect on improving existing deficits in attention and memory in children with ADHD having deficits in these areas (Canadian Association for Music Therapy, 2006; Morton, Kershner, & Siegel, 1990). In their research Pelham, Hoza, Sams, Gnagy, Greiner and Waschbush (1994) found that 30% of children with ADHD had higher rates to complete their work after listening to rock music.

Many children with ADHD have a number of negative behaviors. Some of these negative behaviors are: anxiety, depression, low self-esteem and self-perception, decreased motivation and low self-efficacy. This may be due to low self-esteem caused by the gap between parents' expectations and teachers (Barber, Grubbs, & Cottrell, 2005; Frankel, Cantwell, Myatt, 1999; Hechtman, Weiss, & Perlman, 1980; Mazzone, Postorino, Reale, Guarnera, Mannino, Armando, Fatta, De Peppo, & Vicari, 2013; Slomkowski, Klein, & Mannuzza, 1995; Treuting, & Hinshaw, 2001). Rickson and Watkins (2003) have shown that music could definately influence these emotional and psychological states.

Music does not only have a beneficial effect on emotional and psychological situations involving these children, but it also affects development of speech and language skills (Ludlam, 2011).

CONCLUSIONS

Many studies demonstrating how music has healing properties and positive results in various physical and mental illnesses and people who have various developmental diversities as (ADHD, Autism, Down Syndrome, and Williams Syndrome) have been performed.

Music as a therapeutic agent has the power to help children with ADHD to improve various sectors experiencing shortages, as the awareness of themselves and their environment, their self-esteem, to verbal and nonverbal their communication skills, social their skills, their ability to express their feelings, their capacity for more attention to work and improve memorization skills. Through the study of the literature, the results are encouraging. Therefore, it is necessary to further study the role of music during the education of children with ADHD in special education schools and institutions, but also in general.

REFERENCES

Agapitou-Chalmpe, B. (2010). The hyperactive child in preschool and first school age: theoretical and practical approach. Athens: Pedio Publications.

Antoniadou, S.M. (2011). Τhe relationship between music and children' s with autism treatment (Unpublished master’s thesis). University of Ioannina, Ioannina, Greece.

Arnold, L. E., Demeter, C., Mount, K., Frazier, T., Youngstrom, E., Fristad, M., … Kowatch, R. (2011). Pediatric bipolar spectrum disorder and ADHD: comparison and comorbidity in the LAMS clinical sample. Bipolar Disorders,13 (5-6), 509–521.

Barber, S., Grubbs, L., & Cottrell, B.. (2005). Self-perception in children with attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Journal of Pediatric Nursing, 20, 235-45.

Barkley, R.A. (1998). Attention- Deficit/ Hyperactivity Disorder. In E.J. Mash and R.A. Barkley (Eds.). Treatment of Childhood disorders (p.p. 55-110). New York: The Guilford Press.

Bendiksen, B., Aase, H., Svensson, E., Friis, S., Myhre, A. M., Reichborn-Kjennerud, T., & Zeiner, P. (2014). Impairment in Young Preschool Children with Symptoms of Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder and Co-occurring Oppositional Defiant Disorder and Conduct Disorder. Scandinavian Journal of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Psychology, 2(3).

Biederman, J., Newcorn, J., Sprich, S. (1991). Comorbidity of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder with conduct, depressive, anxiety, and other disorders. The American Journal Psychiatry, 148, 564-577.

Bloch, Y., Aviram, S., Neeman, R., Braw, Y., Nitzan, U., Maoz, H., & Mimouni-Bloch, A. (2015). Methylphenidate mediated change in prosody is specific to the performance of a cognitive task in female adult ADHD patients. The World Journal of Biological Psychiatry, 16(8), 1-5.

Brossard-Racine, M., Shevell, M., Snider, L., Belanger, S. A., & Majnemer, A. (2012). Motor skills of children newly diagnosed with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder prior to and following treatment with stimulant medication. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 33(6), 2080–2087.

Canadian Association for Music Therapy. (2006).  Specific applications of musical techniques in music therapy. Retrieved April 12, 2016, from Canadian Association for Music Therapy Web site: (http://www.musictherapy.ca/methods.html).

Castellanos, X.F., Sonuga-Barke, E.J.S., Milham, M.P., & Tannock, R. (2006). Characterizing cognition in ADHD: beyond executive dysfunction. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 10 (3), 117-123.

Fliers, E. A., Franke, B., Lambregts-Rommelse, N. N. J., Altink, M. E., Buschgens, C. J. M., Nijhuis-van der Sanden, M. W. G., et al. (2010). Undertreatment of motor problems in children with ADHD. Child and Adolescent Mental Health, 15(2), 85–90.

Frankel, F., Cantwell, D.P., & Myatt, R. (1999). Do Stimulants Improve Self-Esteem in Children with ADHD and Peer Problems? Journal of Child and Adolescent Psychopharmacology, 9, 185-94.

Frick, P. J., Lahey, B. B., Christ, M. A. G., Loeber, R., & Green, S. M. (1991). History of childhood behavior problems in biological relatives of boys with Attention-deficit Hyperactivity Disorder and Conduct Disorder. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 20, 445-451.

Ghanizadeh, A. (2011). Overlap of ADHD and oppositional defiant disorder DSM-IV derived criteria. Archives of Iranian medicine, 14(3), 179-82.

Green, B.C., Johnson, K.A., & Bretherton. (2014). Pragmatic language difficulties in children with hyperactivity and attention problems: An integrated review. International Journal of Language & Communication Disorders, 49(1), 15-29.

Hartley, S.L., & Sikora, D.M. (2009). Which DSM-IV-TR criteria best differentiate highfunctioning autism spectrum disorder from ADHD and anxiety disorder in older children? Autism, 13 (5), 485-509.

Hechtman, L., Weiss, G., & Perlman, T. (1980). Hyperactives as young adults: self-esteem and social skills. Canadian Journal of Psychiatry, 25, 478-83.

Husain, G., Thompson, W. F., & Schellenberg, E. G. (2002). Effects of musical tempo and mode on arousal, mood and spatial abilities. Music Perception, 20, 151-171.

Kakouros, E. (2001). The hyperactive child. Athens: Ellinika Grammata Publications.

Kofler, M.J., Rapport, M.D., Bolden, J., Sarver, D.E., Raiker, J.S., & Alderson, R.M. (2011). Working Memory Deficits and Social Problems in Children with ADHD. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 39(6), 805-17.

Lavasani, N. M., & Stagnitti, K. (2011). A study on fine motor skills of Iranian children with attention deficit/hyper activity disorder aged from 6 to 11 years. Occupational Therapy International, 18(2), 106–114.

Lawrence, V., Houghton, S., Douglas, G., Durkin, K., Whiting, K., & Tannock, R. (2004). Executive function and ADHD: a comparison of children's performance during neuropsychological testing and real-world activities. Journal of Attention Disorders, 7(3), 137-149.

Leirbakk, M.J., Clench-Aas, J., Raanaas, R.K. (2014). ADHD with Co-Occurring Depression/Anxiety in Children: The Relationship with Somatic Complaints and Parental Socio-Economic Position. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 4, 137.

Ludlam, S.K. (2011). The use of music therapy to support speech and expressive language development for pre- school children with special needs. (Unpublished Master’s thesis). Massey University, Wellington, New Zealand.

Mahan, T. (2013). Connection Between Dyslexia and ADHD. Available at: http://goo.gl/xcdAgq

Matthys, W., Vanderschuren, L., Schutter, D. & Lochman, J. (2012). Impaired Neurocognitive Functions Affect Social Learning Processes in Oppositional Defiant Disorder and Conduct Disorder: Implications for Interventions. Clinical Child & Family Psychology, 15 (3), 234-246.

Mazzone, L.,  Postorino, V., Reale, L.,  Guarnera, M.,   Mannino, V.,  Armando, M.,  Fatta, L., De Peppo, L.,  & Vicari, S. (2013). Self-Esteem Evaluation in Children and Adolescents Suffering from ADHD. Clinical Practice & Epidemiology in Mental Health, 9, 96-102.

Miller, S., Chang, K.D., & Ketter, A.T. (2013). Bipolar Disorder and Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder Comorbidity in Children and Adolescents: Evidence-Based Approach to Diagnosis and Treatment. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 74 (6), 628-629.

Miodovnik, A., Harstad, E., Sideridis, G., & Huntington, N. (2015).  Timing of the diagnosis of attention-deficit/ hyperactivity disorder and autism spectrum disorder. Pediatrics, 136(4), 830.

Mordre, M., Groholt, B., Kjelsberg, E., Sandstad, B., & Myhre, A.M. (2011). The impact of ADHD and conduct disorder in childhood on adult delinquency: A 30 years follow-up study using official crime records. BMC Psychiatry, 11(1), 1-10.

Morton, L. L., Kershner, J. R., & Siegel, L. S. (1990). The potential for therapeutic applications of music on problems related to memory and attention. Journal of Music Therapy, 27, 195-208.

Myers, B. (2008). Social Problems Often Associated with Attention Deficit Disorder. Available online at: http://goo.gl/uPPFLz

Nantanis, K. M., Schellenberg, E. G. (1999). The Mozart effect: An artifact of preference. Psychological Science, 10, 370-373.

Nigg, J.T. (2009). Cognitive Impairments Found With Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder. Available online at: http://goo.gl/QJqGVM

Panksepp, J., & Bernatzky, G. (2002). Emotional sounds and the brain: The neuroaffective foundations of music appreciation. Behavioural Processes, 60, 133-155.

Pasini, A., & D’Agati, E. (2009a). Pathophysiology of NSS in ADHD. The World Journal of Biological Psychiatry, 10, 495–502.

Pasini, A., & D’Agati, E. (2012b). Motor examination in children with Attention-Deficit⁄Hyperactivity Disorder and Asperger Syndrome. Acta Paediatrica, 101, 15-18.

Pelham, W. E., Jr., Hoza, B., Sams, S. E., Gnagy, E. M., Greiner, A. R., & Waschbush, D. A.  (1994). Rock music and video movies as distracters for ADHD boys in the classroom: Comparison with controls, individual differences, and medication effects.  Poster session presented at the annual meeting of the Society for Research in Child and Adolescent Psychopathology, London.

Perrin, S., & Last, C. G. (1996). Relationship between ADHD and anxiety in boys: Results from a family study. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 35, 988–996.

Plizka, S. (1989). Effect of anxiety on cognition, behavior, and stimulant response in ADHD. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 28, 882-887.

Reeves, J.C., Werry, J.S., Elkind, G.S., & Zametkin, A. (1987). Attention deficit, conduct, oppositional, and anxiety disorders in children: II. Clinical characteristics. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry,26, 144-155.

Rich, E.C., Loo, K.S., Yang, M., Dang, J., Smalley, S.L. (2009). Social functioning difficulties in ADHD: Association with PDD risk. Clinical Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 14(3), 329-44.

Rickson, D. J., & Watkins, W. G. (2003). Music therapy to promote prosocial behaviours in aggressive adolescent boys – A pilot study.  Journal of Music Therapy, 4, 283-301.

Satterfield, J.H., Faller, K.J., Crinella, F.M., Schell, A.M., Swanson, J.M., & Homer, L.D. (2007). A 30Year Prospective Follow-up Study of Hyperactive Boys With Conduct Problems. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 46(5), 601-10.

Semrud-Clikeman, M., Walkowiak, J., Wilkinson, A., Butcher. B. (2010). Executive functioning in children with Asperger syndrome, ADHD-combined type, ADHD-predominately inattentive type, and controls. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 40, 1017–27.

Slomkowski, C., Klein, R.G., & Mannuzza, S. (1995). . Is self-esteem an important outcome in hyperactive children? Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 23, 303-15.

Thompson, W. F., Schellenberg, E. G., & Husain, G. (2001). Arousal, mood, and the Mozart effect. Psychological Science, 12, 248-251.

Toplak, M.E., & Tannock, R. (2005b). Time Perception: Modality and duration effects in attention- deficit/ hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 33 (5), 639- 654.

Toplak, M.E., Jain, U., & Tannock, R. (2005a). Executive and motivational processes in adolescents with Attention-Deficit-Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD). Behavioral and Brain Functions, 1 (8), 1-12.

Treuting, J.J., & Hinshaw, S.P. (2001). Depression and self-esteem in boys with attention- deficit/hyperactivity disorder: associations with comorbid aggression and explanatory attributional mechanisms. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 29, 23-39.

Werry, J.S., Reeves, J.C., & Elkind, G.S. (1987). Attention deficit, conduct, oppositional, and anxiety disorders in children: I. A review of research on differentiating characteristics. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 26 (2), 133-143.

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Μαντζίκος, Ν.Κ. (2015). Η Μουσική Θεραπεύει: η θεραπευτική δράση της μουσικής στις αναπτυξιακές διαταραχές (2η έκδοση). Θεσσαλονίκη: iWrite.gr Publications. 

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ΠΕΡΙΛΗΨΗ

Ήδη από τα Αρχαία χρόνια η μουσική χρησιμοποιούνταν ως θεραπευτικό μέσο. Πολλοί Αρχαίοι Έλληνες  όπως ο Τέρπανδρος, ο Αρίωνας, ο Ισομένιος, ο Εμπεδοκλής, ο Πυθαγόρας, ο Αριστόξενος ο Ταραντίνος, ο Ερώφιλος, ο Δημοκρίτος, ο Δάμωνας, ο Κέλσος, ο Γαληνός,  ο Θεόφραστος κ.ά., εφάρμοζαν την μουσική ως θεραπευτικό μέσο σε ανθρώπους με διάφορες σωματικές και ψυχικές παθήσεις. Νεότερες έρευνες από το εξωτερικό και την Ελλάδα απέδειξαν τον σημαντικό ρόλο της μουσικής σε ανθρώπους με διάφορες αναπτυξιακές διαφορετικότητες (ΔΕΠΥ, αυτισμός, Σύνδρομο Down) που παρουσιάζουν ελλείμματα σε διάφορους τομείς όπως στην γλώσσα, στην επικοινωνία, στη διάθεση, στη μνήμη, στη προσοχή κ.ά.  Η επίδραση της μουσικής, σε παιδιά με ΔΕΠΥ, έχει θετικά αποτελέσματα στη βελτίωση πολλών τομέων, που παρουσιάζουν ελλείψεις. Στο παρόν άρθρο μέσω της βιβλιογραφίας γίνεται αναφορά στους ορισμούς της ΔΕΠΥ και της μουσικοθεραπείας, σκιαγραφείται το γνωστικό και το ψυχολογικό προφίλ των παιδιών αυτών, καθώς αναφέρεται και η αποτελεσματικότητα της μουσικής, σε διάφορους τομείς, όπου παρουσιάζουν ελλείμματα τα παιδιά με ΔΕΠΥ.

ΛΕΞΕΙΣ-ΚΛΕΙΔΙΑ: Παιδιά, ΔΕΠΥ, μουσική, γνωστικό, ψυχολογικό, προφίλ.

ABSTRACT

Many ancient Greek scholars such as Terpander, Arion, Isomenios, Empedocles, Pythagoras, Aristoxenus, Democritus, Damon, Celsus, Galen, Theophrastus had applied music as a therapeutic agent in people with various body and mental illnesses. Recent investigations demonstrated the important role of music in persons with various developmental disorders (ADHD, autism, and Down Syndrome) which present deficits in various sectors such as language, communication, disposition, memory, and attention. The effect of music, in children with ADHD, has positive results in improvement in many fields in which they present such shortfalls. In this article through the bibliography we report the definitions of ADHD and music therapy, cognitive and psychological profile of these children as well as the effectiveness of music, in various sectors in which they present deficits.

KEYWORDS: Children, ADHD, music, cognitive, psychological, profile.

ΕΙΣΑΓΩΓΗ

Στη Διαταραχή Ελλειμματικής Προσοχής Υπερκινητικότητα (ΔΕΠΥ),είναι ορισμένα παιδιά που παρουσιάζουν υπερβολική ενεργητικότητα και κινητική δραστηριότητα, συγκριτικά με τα συνομήλικά τους. Η ικανότητά τους να διατηρούν την προσοχή και το ενδιαφέρον τους στη δραστηριότητα με την οποία ασχολούνται και να φέρουν σε πέρας τα καθήκοντα τα οποία τους ανατίθενται, είναι εξαιρετικά μειωμένη. Επιπλέον, η παρορμητική συμπεριφορά τους αποκλίνει σημαντικά σε ένταση και συχνότητα από παρόμοιες μορφές συμπεριφοράς των συνομηλίκων τους. Πολλές φορές επίσης παρουσιάζουν αντιδραστική συμπεριφορά και έλλειψη συνεργατικής διάθεσης. Γενικά, θα μπορούσαμε να πούμε ότι τα παιδιά αυτά, αν και έχουν φυσιολογική νοημοσύνη, συχνά δυσκολεύονται πολύ να ανταποκριθούν στις απαιτήσεις του περιβάλλοντος και δεν συμπεριφέρονται με ανάλογο τρόπο του αναπτυξιακού τους επιπέδου (Κάκουρος, 2001).

Η μουσικοθεραπεία είναι η μέθοδος θεραπείας ασθενών, η μέθοδος αποκατάστασης της υγείας, που επιτυγχάνεται με τη χρήση της μουσικής, μέσω της επίδρασης των ήχων. Τη θεραπευτική μέθοδο αποτελούν η παραγωγή μουσικού ήχου και η ακρόασή του. Η μουσικοθεραπεία αποτελεί μια ορισμένη μέθοδο της ψυχοθεραπείας, η οποία λαμβάνει τη μουσική σαν μέσο επικοινωνίας. Η παραγόμενη και ακουόμενη μουσική φορτίζει συναισθηματικά τα πρόσωπα, που έχουν σχέση με την ψυχοθεραπευτική προσπάθεια (Αντωνιάδου, 2011).

ΓΝΩΣΤΙΚΟ ΚΑΙ ΨΥΧΟΛΟΓΙΚΟ ΠΡΟΦΙΛ ΑΤΟΜΩΝ ΜΕ ΔΕΠΥ

Στη ΔΕΠΥ υπάρχουν αρκετά προβλήματα λόγου όπως στη πραγματολογία και στη  προσωδία (Bloch, Aviram, Neeman, Braw, Nitzan, Maoz, & Mimouni-Bloch, 2015· Green, Johnson, & Bretherton, 2014). Επίσης, τα άτομα με ΔΕΠΥ εμφανίζουν σε μεγάλο βαθμό κινητική υπερδραστηριότητα και λιγότερο αισθητηριακά προβλήματα (Hartley & Sikora, 2009). Αρκετές έρευνες (Brossard-Racine, Shevell, Snider, Belanger, & Majnemer, 2012· Fliers, Franke, Lambregts-Rommelse,  Altink, Buschgens, 2010· Lavasani & Stagnitti, 2011· Pasini, & D’Agati, 2009a· Pasini, & D’Agati, 2012b) στο εξωτερικό έχουν δείξει ότι τα άτομα  με ΔΕΠΥ έχουν κακές επιδόσεις στα τεστ των κινητικών δεξιοτήτων. Επιπλέον, αρκετές έρευνες υποστηρίζουν πώς στη ΔΕΠΥ υπάρχουν ελλείμματα στις εκτελεστικές λειτουργίες, δηλαδή στην εργαζόμενη μνήμη στην επιλεκτική προσοχή, στην αναστολή συμπεριφοράς, και στο σχεδιασμό δράσης (Barkley, 1998· Kofler, Rapport, Bolden, Sarver, Raiker,& Alderson, 2011· Lawrence, Houghton, Douglas, Durkin, Whiting, & Tannock, 2004· Nigg, 2009· Semrud-Clickerman, Walkowiak, Wilkinson, & Christopher, 2010).

Από την άλλη πλευρά, φαίνεται πώς τα παιδιά με ΔΕΠΥ εμφανίζουν ελλείμματα στα κίνητρα και στη λήψη αποφάσεων (Αγαπητού-Χαλμπέ,2010·  Castellanos, Sonuga-Barke, Milham, & Tannock, 2006· Toplak, Jain, & Tannock, 2005a), καθώς επίσης εμφανίζουν και ελλείμματα στη ρύθμιση της διάθεσης,  στη χαμηλή διέγερση, και έχουν αργή ταχύτητα στον τρόπο επεξεργασίας των πληροφοριών και στο χρόνο αντίδρασης (Nigg, 2009· Wu, Xiao, Sun, Zou, & Zhu, 2012). Σε αυτό το κομμάτι υπάρχει αρκετή συσχέτιση της ΔΕΠΥ με τον αυτισμό (Asperger) (Miodovnik, Harstad, Sideridis, & Huntington, 2015· Nigg, 2009). Αρχικά, ο αργός τρόπος επεξεργασίας πληροφοριών συμβαίνει επειδή τα παιδιά με αυτές τις δύο διαφορετικότητες όταν λαμβάνουν πολλές πληροφορίες είναι δύσκολο να τις επεξεργαστούν όλες μαζί και για αυτό θέλουν χρόνο να τις επεξεργαστούν και να τις βάλουν σε μια σειρά. Επιπλέον, ο λόγος που αργούν να αντιδράσουν για παράδειγμα σε μια ερώτηση είναι επειδή τα παιδιά με ΔΕΠΥ, όπως και τα αυτιστικά παιδιά σκέφτονται την ερώτηση με την απάντηση και έτσι βλέπουν αν βγαίνει μια λογική εικόνα και ύστερα απαντούν.  Επίσης, τα παιδιά με ΔΕΠΥ έχουν και μαθησιακές δυσκολίες όπως δυσκολίες στα μαθηματικά, δυσλεξία  (Αγαπητού-Χαλμπέ,2010· Mahan, 2013· Nigg, 2009).

Έρευνες (Arnold, Demeter, Mount, Frazier, Youngstrom, Fristad, Birmaher, Findling, Horwitz, & Kowatch, 2011· Biederman, Newcorn, & Sprich, 1991· Leirbakk, Clench-Aas, & Raanaas, 2015· Miller, Chang, & Ketter, 2013· Perrin, & Last, 1996· Plizka, 1989· Reeves, Werry, Elkind, & Zametkin, 1987· Werry, Reeves, & Elkind, 1987) έχουν δείξει ότι τα παιδιά με ΔΕΠΥ μπορούν να εμφανίσουν Διπολική Διαταραχή, καθώς και αγχώδη διαταραχή. Έχει αναφερθεί μέσα από έρευνες πώς τα παιδιά με ΔΕΠΥ παρουσιάζουν δυσκολίες στην κοινωνικοποίηση σε διάφορα περιβάλλοντα, όπως για παράδειγμα στο προαύλιο του σχολείου και στην παιδική χαρά της γειτονιάς (Kofler et al, 2011· Myers, 2008· Rich, Loo, Yang, Dang, & Smalley, 2009).

Οι Toplak και Tannock (2005b) υποστηρίζουν πώς τα παιδιά με ΔΕΠΥ έχουν προβλήματα στην αντίληψη του χρόνου.  Έρευνες έχουν δείξει πώς τα παιδιά με ΔΕΠΥ είναι δυνατόν να εμφανίσουν Εναντιωματική Προκλητική Διαταραχή και Διαταραχή Διαγωγής (Bendiksen, Aase, Svensson, Friis, Myhre, Reichborn-Kjennerud, &  Zeiner, 2014· Frick, Lahey, Christ, Loeber, & Green, 1991· Ghanizadeh, 2011· Matthys, Vanderschuren, Schutter, & Lochman, 2012· Mordre, Groholt, Kjelsberg, Sandstad, &  Myhre,  2011·  Satterfield, Faller, Crinella, Schell, Swanson, &  Homer, 2007· Werry et al, 1987).

Η ΕΠΙΔΡΑΣΗ ΤΗΣ ΜΟΥΣΙΚΗΣ ΣΤΗ ΔΕΠΥ

Όπως αναφέρθηκε παραπάνω τα παιδιά με ΔΕΠΥ εμφανίζουν ελλείμματα στη διάθεση και στη διέγερση. Έρευνες έχουν δείξει πώς όταν τα παιδιά με ΔΕΠΥ ακούν συγκεκριμένα μουσικά κομμάτια τότε αυτά έχουν θετική επίδραση στη διάθεση τους και στη διέγερση (Husain, Thompson, & Schellenberg, 2002· Nantanis & Schellenberg, 1999· Panksepp & Bernatzky, 2002· Thompson, Schellenberg, & Husain, 2001). 

Επιπλέον, τα παιδιά με ΔΕΠΥ όπως φάνηκε παραπάνω εμφανίζουν ελλείμματα στη προσοχή και στη μνήμη. Έρευνες απέδειξαν πώς η μουσική έχει θετική επίδραση στην βελτίωση αυτών των ελλειμμάτων που υπάρχων στη προσοχή και στη μνήμη (Canadian Association for Music Therapy, 2006· Morton, Kershner, & Siegel, 1990). Σε έρευνα τους οι Pelham, Hoza, Sams, Gnagy, Greiner και Waschbush (1994) διαπίστωσαν ότι το 30% των παιδιών με ΔΕΠΥ είχαν αυξημένα ποσοστά στο να ολοκληρώσουν την εργασία τους όταν άκουγαν rock μουσική.

Πολλά παιδιά με ΔΕΠΥ εμφανίζουν μια σειρά από αρνητικές συμπεριφορές. Μερικές από αυτές τις αρνητικές συμπεριφορές είναι: άγχος, κατάθλιψη, χαμηλή αυτοεκτίμηση και αυτοαντίληψη, μειωμένα κίνητρα και χαμηλή αυτοαποτελεσματικότητα. Αυτό μπορεί να συμβαίνει λόγω της χαμηλής αυτοεκτίμησης που προκαλείται από το χάσμα ανάμεσα στις προσδοκίες των γονέων και των εκπαιδευτικών (Barber, Grubbs, & Cottrell, 2005·  Frankel, Cantwell, Myatt, 1999· Hechtman, Weiss, & Perlman, 1980· Mazzone, Postorino, Reale, Guarnera,  Mannino, Armando, Fatta, De Peppo, & Vicari, 2013· Slomkowski, Klein, & Mannuzza, 1995· Treuting, & Hinshaw, 2001). Η μουσική επίδραση σε αυτές τις συναισθηματικές και ψυχολογικές καταστάσεις, που εμφανίζουν τα παιδιά με ΔΕΠΥ, είναι πολύ αποτελεσματική (Rickson, & Watkins, 2003).

Η μουσική δεν έχει μόνο ευεργετική επίδραση τις συναισθηματικές και ψυχολογικές καταστάσεις που παρουσιάζουν αυτά τα παιδιά, αλλά έχει και ευεργετική επίδραση  στην ανάπτυξη της ομιλίας και των γλωσσικών δεξιοτήτων (Ludlam, 2011).

ΣΥΜΠΕΡΑΣΜΑΤΑ

Έχουν διεξαχθεί πολλές έρευνες στο εξωτερικό που αποδεικνύουν πώς η μουσική έχει θεραπευτικές ιδιότητες και θετικά αποτελέσματα σε διάφορες σωματικές και ψυχικές ασθένειες, καθώς και ανθρώπους που έχουν διάφορες αναπτυξιακές διαφορετικότητες όπως (ΔΕΠΥ, Αυτισμός, Σύνδρομο Down, Σύνδρομο Williams κ.ά.).

 Η μουσική ως θεραπευτικό μέσο έχει την δύναμη να βοηθήσει τα παιδιά με ΔΕΠΥ, να βελτιώσουν διάφορους τομείς, που παρουσιάζουν ελλείμματα, όπως στην επίγνωση του εαυτού τους και του περιβάλλοντος τους, στην αυτοεκτίμηση τους, στις λεκτικές και μη λεκτικές επικοινωνιακές δεξιότητες τους, στις κοινωνικές δεξιότητες τους, στην ικανότητα τους να εκφράζουν τα συναισθήματά τους, στην ικανότητα τους για περισσότερη προσοχή στην εργασία και στη βελτίωση των δεξιοτήτων αποστήθισης. Μέσα από τη μελέτη της βιβλιογραφίας , τα αποτελέσματα  φαίνονται ενθαρρυντικά. Συνεπώς,  κρίνεται αναγκαία η περαιτέρω μελέτη του ρόλου της μουσικής, κατά τη διάρκεια της εκπαίδευσης των παιδιών με ΔΕΠΥ, σε σχολεία Ειδικής Εκπαίδευσης και σε Ιδρύματα, αλλά και γενικότερα.   

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